Neural Network Overview

What Is a Neural Network?

A neural network is a computational model made of many simple processing units called neurons. These neurons are organized into layers and connected by weighted links. The network transforms input data into outputs and can learn complex patterns and relationships from examples.

Core Components

1. Neurons

• Each neuron receives one or more inputs (numbers).
• It computes a weighted sum of these inputs.
• It adds a bias term.
• It applies an activation function to produce an output.

2. Layers

• Input Layer
  • Receives raw data (e.g., pixels, feature vectors, numerical signals).
  • Does not perform computation; it just feeds data into the network.
• Hidden Layers
  • One or more layers of neurons between input and output.
  • Each layer learns increasingly abstract features from the previous layer.
  • Networks with many hidden layers are called deep neural networks.
• Output Layer
  • Produces the final result of the network.
  • Examples: class probabilities, a numeric prediction, or an encoded representation.

3. Weights and Biases

• Weights control the strength and direction of connections between neurons.
• Biases allow the neuron to shift the activation function left or right.
• Learning in a neural network means adjusting weights and biases to reduce error.

How Neural Networks Learn

1. Training Data

• The network is given many examples of input–output pairs.
• Goal: learn a mapping from inputs to outputs that generalizes to unseen data.

2. Forward Pass

1. Input data is fed into the input layer.
2. Each layer computes its outputs and passes them to the next layer.
3. The output layer produces a final prediction.

3. Loss Function

• The loss function measures how far the prediction is from the target.
• Common examples:
  • Mean Squared Error (MSE) for regression.
  • Cross-Entropy Loss for classification.

4. Backpropagation and Optimization

1. Backpropagation computes gradients of the loss with respect to all weights and biases.
2. An optimizer uses these gradients to update the parameters and reduce the loss. Common optimizers include:
   • Stochastic Gradient Descent (SGD)
   • Adam
3. This process repeats over many iterations (epochs) until performance is acceptable.

Activation Functions

Activation functions introduce nonlinearity, allowing the network to learn complex patterns that a simple linear model cannot.

• ReLU (Rectified Linear Unit)
  • Outputs 0 for negative inputs and the input itself for positive values.
  • Widely used in hidden layers of deep networks.
• Sigmoid
  • Outputs values between 0 and 1.
  • Historically used for binary classification and output layers.
• Tanh
  • Outputs values between -1 and 1.
  • Zero-centered version of sigmoid.
• Softmax
  • Converts a vector of scores into a probability distribution.
  • Commonly used in the output layer for multi-class classification.

Common Types of Neural Networks

1. Feedforward Neural Networks (FNN)

• Layers are fully connected; data flows strictly from input to output.
• Used for basic classification and regression tasks.

2. Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs)

• Use convolutional layers to process grid-like data such as images.
• Excellent for image classification, object detection, and vision tasks.

3. Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs)

• Designed for sequence data (time series, text, speech).
• Have connections that loop back, allowing information to persist over time.
• Variants include LSTM and GRU networks.

4. Transformers

• Use attention mechanisms instead of recurrence.
• Very effective for language modeling, translation, and large-scale sequence tasks.
• Form the basis for many modern large language models.

5. Autoencoders and Generative Models

• Autoencoders
  • Learn to compress (encode) and reconstruct (decode) data.
  • Used for dimensionality reduction, denoising, and feature learning.
• Generative Models (e.g., GANs, VAEs, diffusion models)
  • Learn to generate new data similar to the training data.
  • Used in image generation, audio synthesis, and text generation.

Applications of Neural Networks

• Computer Vision
  • Image classification, object detection, segmentation, facial recognition.
• Natural Language Processing
  • Machine translation, text classification, chatbots, summarization.
• Speech and Audio
  • Speech recognition, speech synthesis, audio classification.
• Time-Series Forecasting
  • Stock prices, demand forecasting, sensor data analysis.
• Recommendation Systems
  • Personalized content and product recommendations.
• Control and Robotics
  • Autonomous vehicles, robot control, reinforcement learning.

Summary

• Neural networks are layered collections of neurons that learn from data.
• They use weights, biases, and activation functions to model complex relationships.
• Training uses forward passes, loss computation, backpropagation, and optimization.
• Different architectures are specialized for images, text, sequences, and generation.
• They power many modern AI systems across vision, language, audio, and control tasks.